Not Poetry, but Punctuation

In order to be able to punctuate correctly, it does help to have an understanding of sentences, clauses and phrases. Very briefly, a sentence needs to contain a finite verb, i.e., a verb that has a subject. A clause also has to contain a verb: a main clause can stand on its own as a sentence, whilst a subordinate clause is introduced by a conjunction. A phrase is a group of words that does not contain a verb and cannot stand alone as a sentence.

FULL STOP OR PERIOD .

A full stop or period must be used at the end of a sentence, as defined above, unless it is replaced by a question mark of exclamation mark. A common mistake is to use a comma instead of a full stop. In direct speech, a full stop should be placed before the closing speech marks if they mark the end of a sentence.

Full stops or periods are also used after abbreviations, unless the abbreviation ends with the last letter of the word, in which case no period is necessary.

QUESTION MARKS ?

A question mark is placed at the end of a direct question. It comes before the closing speech marks in direct speech, for example:

“Where is the library?” I asked him.

Question marks are not used with indirect (reported) questions, for example:

I asked him where the library was.

This is an indirect question that does not need a question mark.

EXCLAMATION MARK !

An exclamation mark indicates surprise, anger, etc. It could also be used to show that the speaker is raising his/her voice.

“Look out!” shouted Jim.

“Don't be so rude!” cried the old lady.

“I've won a prize!” exclaimed my cousin.

COMMA ,

The comma indicates a pause that is less strong than a paused indicated by a semi-colon or a full stop. If in doubt, it is probably better to omit a comma unless it seems absolutely necessary. In the case of a sentence with a second clause introduced by a conjunction, a comma may be placed before the conjunction if the verb in the subordinate clause has a subject, for example:

I wanted to go abroad but couldn't really afford it. (No comma needed, as the subject of the verb couldn't is I in the previous clause.)

I really wanted to stay in, but the sun was shining and I had no excuse.

Commas are never placed before opening parentheses.

Commas should be used to separate brief items in a list, the last two items being joined by the word and, for example:

I bought apples, oranges, bananas, grapes and pears.

A comma should be placed at the end of direct speech, before the closing speech marks, if the speech is followed by 'she said', 'he asked', and so on. Exceptions would be where a question mark or exclamation mark is required. (See below.)

COLON :

A colon can be used to introduce a list, for example:

When they went on holiday they took very little luggage: a change of clothes; a first-aid kit and some toothpaste.

Another use is to separate two clauses in a sentence, where the second clause explains the first.

The boys went home early: it was too wet to play tennis.

SEMI-COLON ;

A semi-colon marks a stronger pause than a comma, but it is less strong than a full stop, for example:

Don't wait more than half an hour for me; go on ahead.

A semi-colon can separate longer items in a list, for example:

We were asked to bring three dozen paper clips; two balls of string; one small and one large pair of scissors; a tube of glue suitable for sticking paper; a small notepad and a ballpoint pen.

INVERTED COMMAS/SPEECH MARKS/QUOTATION MARKS “

Double speech marks are used to indicate direct speech. They are opened before the first word that is spoken and closed after the final word that is actually spoken. A full stop, comma, question mark or exclamation mark should be placed after the last word but before the closing speech marks. Words and phrases such as 'she said' and 'he asked' are not included within the speech marks. A quotation used within direct speech can be placed in single inverted commas. Indirect or reported speech does not require the use of speech marks. Here are one or two examples:

“Will you remember to pick Robert up on your way home?” she asked.

He replied, “I've never forgotten to pick him up.”

“Who first said, 'Variety is the spice of life'? Answer me that!” he challenged us.

They told us that it was too soon to make a reservation. (This is reported or indirect speech that does not need speech marks.)

In dialogue, start a new line every time there is a new speaker.

APOSTROPHES '

Apostrophes are perhaps the most misused of all punctuation marks. They have two uses: the first is for contraction, indicating missing letters in shortened words; the second is for possession, where there is an element of ownership or belonging. Examples:

The doctor's surgery was empty. (only one doctor)

The dogs' paws were covered in mud. (more than one dog)

The children's books were all over the floor. (The apostrophe is before the s, because the plural form children does not have an s.)

James's house was burgled last night.

The only exception regarding apostrophes for possession is its. It's with an apostrophe means it is or it has. If its means belonging to it, no apostrophe is used, as in this example:

The cat washed its face.

Examples of apostrophes used for contraction are don't, didn't, can't, isn't, shouldn't, I've, you're, they're, it's.

ELLIPSIS ...

Three successive full stops or periods, known as an ellipsis, can be used to indicate an unfinished sentence.

DASH

A pair of dashes can be used to separate a phrase or clause within a sentence that could be omitted and leave a sentence that would still make sense. The separated phrase or clause usually adds extra information to the sentence, for example:

I'll wear my red shoes – the ones I bought in Italy last summer – as long as it doesn't rain.

HYPHEN -

A short hyphen is used between two words to form a compound word. Not all compound words require hyphens, but a dictionary will tell you whether or not one is needed.

Capital letters are not strictly speaking punctuation, but of course every sentence must start with a capital letter. The first word in direct speech must always have a capital letter, even if the spoken words are not at the very beginning of a sentence. Proper nouns should always have a capital letter; these includes names of people and places, days of the week, months of the year, titles of books or films, and so on.

Metaphors and Alliteration

Metaphors and alliteration are two quite different figures of speech. Metaphors compare one thing to another by saying something IS something else or DOES something else (as opposed to a simile, where the words LIKE or AS are used in the comparison). Alliteration, on the other hand, is the use of the same consonant at the beginning of words in the same sentence or phrase as each other, sometimes to create a particular mood or atmosphere.

METAPHOR

Shakespeare uses metaphors in “Romeo and Juliet” when Romeo is expressing his idea of love:

'Love is a smoke rais'd with the fume of sighs;

Being purg'd, a fire sparkling in lovers' eyes;

Being vex'd, a sea nourish'd with loving tears.

What is it else? A madness most discreet,

A choking gall, and a preserving sweet.'

Romeo conjures up these images of love in Act One Scene I, expressing his frustration that Rosaline does not return the love he feels for her. All this is soon forgotten when he sets eyes on Juliet, and he first speaks to her in Act One Scene V. He compares his love for her to the idea of worshipping at a holy shrine, and sees his lips as pilgrims as he is about to kiss Juliet's hand:

'My lips, two blushing pilgrims, ready stand

To smooth that rough touch with a tender kiss.”

ALLITERATION

Alliteration is used to striking effect by Gerard Manley Hopkins in his poem 'Inversnaid', in which he describes a Scottish burn, or river, splashing down from a height to a lake below:

'In coop and in comb the fleece of his foam

Flutes and low to the lake falls home.'

He skilfully fits three alliterative phrases into two lines of poetry here, using the c, f and l sounds, the latter two intertwining.

In the fourth and final stanza Hopkins uses alliteration with the consonant w in each of the four lines:

'What would the world be, once bereft

Of wet and wildness? Let them be left,

O let them be left, wildness and wet;

Long live the weed and the wilderness yet.'

The subtle shifts from wildness to wilderness and wet to weed are particularly effective. Notice the additional alliterative phrases intervening: 'Let them be left,' and 'Long live.'

Other poems that make extensive use of alliteration are Walt Whitman's 'Patrolling Barnegat' and Seamus Heaney's 'Death of a Naturalist'.

There are several other figures of speech used by poets and authors, including assonance, simile, contrast, onomatopoeia and personification. A writer can bring his work alive by creating vivid images to convey his ideas and describe his experiences.

Revise the English and English Literature Anthology for AQA A

I must emphasise at the outset of this review that Revise the English and English Literature Anthology for AQA A is intended for pupils taking GCSE English examinations, but only those who are studying the AQA Specification A as is clear from the title. (AQA is an examination board.) Pupils will be supplied by their schools with the AQA Anthology itself (Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198318812); the Anthology is not available in online or offline bookshops, but if you did need to obtain a copy, you might find one on Ebay.

Tony Childs' book is therefore intended to assist with revision of the Anthology, by taking the poems and short stories one by one and asking questions that will guide pupils in the understanding and analysis of the works. The book opens with a six-page introduction that explains the aims of the book, how it can help with revision, and how to prepare for the examination. The summary stresses the importance of reading all the texts again before attempting to answer the questions in this book. There is also some guidance on sitting the examinations themselves, giving details of how long they last, how many questions there are, how to make a good choice of question, and how to plan an answer before starting to write.

The book is then divided into two main sections, Section 1 on English and Section 2 on English Literature: all pupils study at least half the poems in Section 1; all pupils study some of the poetry in Section 2; and some pupils study the prose in Section 2.

Section 1 English

All pupils have to study this section of the Anthology, although some schools concentrate on only Cluster 1 or Cluster 2, each of which contains eight poems. In the examination, there is a choice of two questions, one featuring poems from Cluster 1 and the other poems from Cluster 2. A pupil who has only studied one of the clusters will therefore not have a choice of questions. Cluster 1 contains poems by poets such as Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Chinua Achebe and Grace Nichols, whilst Cluster 2 has works by John Agard, Moniza Alvi and Tom Leonard amongst others. Some of these are written in non-standard English, and most are by poets of non-British origin.

Section 1 briefly explains how the English Anthology fits into the course, and then goes on to discuss what the examiners are looking for over the following two pages. It then looks at the poems one by one, giving a little information about the author followed in some cases by a glossary, and then the main 'Read and revise' set of questions. The questions are preceded by two or three sentences giving a reminder to read the poem and pointing out a basic feature of it, for example, 'Notice particularly the changing length of sentence' for Imtiaz Dharker's poem 'Blessing'. To give an example of the type of questions presented in this book, for Lawrence Ferlinghetti's 'Two Scavengers in a Truck, Two Beautiful People in a Mercedes', Childs asks, 'Which details in the description of the scavengers contrast with the people in the Mercedes? Look for words and phrases, and think about their effect.' Whilst the book does not provide answers to these questions, they will guide pupils in their reading of the poems and show them the points that they need to look for. The questions are followed by 'Final thoughts', a brief summing up, for example 'Read the poem again. Much of the poem is at least half-joking, and is like a song. How does this change at the end?' sums up John Agard's 'Half-Caste'. Finally, there is a table suggesting which poems in the collection could be compared to the one in question.

After all the poems have been dealt with, Childs discusses how to go about comparing poems from different cultures and traditions. He takes 'Night of the Scorpion' and 'Two Scavengers in a Truck, Two Beautiful People in a Mercedes' and draws up a plan giving notes on how they could be compared in terms of meanings and interpretations; linguistic, structural and presentational devices; language variations; and finally place and culture. The following two pages on Structuring a response to Poems from Different Cultures and Traditions considers the question 'Compare the ways in which the poets present people in Night of the Scorpion and one other poem of your choice from the selection.' It offers clear advice in the form of bullet points as well as a table of detailed notes. Pupils are always advised to end by stating which poem of the two they prefer and why.

Section 2 English Literature

All pupils have to study some poems from the Pre-1914 Poetry Bank; alongside these, some pupils study the poems of Seamus Heaney and Gillian Clarke, whilst others study those of Carol Ann Duffy and Simon Armitage. Most examination questions involve comparing two poems, either one by Heaney with one by Clarke or one by Duffy with one by Armitage, and referring in addition to two poems from the Pre-1914 Bank. The Pre-1914 Poetry Bank includes works by poets such as Walt Whitman, Robert Browning, Thomas Hardy, William Blake and William Wordsworth.

Section 2 opens, similarly to Section 1, by showing how the English Literature Anthology fits into the course and explaining what the examiners are looking for. The Assessment Objectives are explained, which include responding to texts critically, sensitively and in detail; exploring how language, structure and form contribute to meaning; and exploring relationships and comparisons within and between texts. Childs notes that examiners will be looking for an understanding of the texts and an ability to think about them and compare one with another.

The poems of Heaney, Clarke, Duffy, Armitage and those of the Pre-1914 Poetry Bank are then looked at in detail, one by one, in a way similar to that of Section 1. Questions include 'The person in the poem is violent. Find as many violent actions, thoughts or intentions as you can in the poem' (for Duffy's Education for Leisure), or 'In lines 4-6, find two examples of things being unusually sad and affecting – one stated, one implied' (for Heaney's Mid-Term Break). Some of the questions are broken down into several bullet points relating to the same aspect of the poem. Final thoughts sum up each poem, and again there is a table suggesting which other poems are suitable for comparison.

A sub-section on Comparing poems/ Structuring a poetry response explains a little about the choice of questions offered in the examination and what candidates might be asked to compare, for instance feelings, ideas, and the poets' styles of writing. A plan is given in the form of a table for the question 'Compare the ways that poets write about nature in four or more of the poems you have studied. You should write about The Field Mouse by Gillian Clarke and Storm on the Island by Seamus Heaney, and two poems from the Pre-1914 Poetry Bank'. Childs selects Tennyson's The Eagle and Clare's Sonnet from the Pre-1914 Bank. In the plan, one column is dedicated to each poem, and notes are then made on aggression connected with nature, feelings caused by nature, other issues, language, structure and form.

Prose follows the poetry: many pupils study a novel as a set text for English Literature, such as Steinbeck's 'Of Mice and Men', but the short stories in the AQA Anthology provide an alternative to the novel. Pupils do, however, have to compare two short stories from the selection in the examination. There are seven short stories altogether, the authors of which are Doris Lessing, Sylvia Plath, Ernest Hemingway, Joyce Cary, Graham Swift, Leslie Norris and Michele Roberts – all modern or contemporary writers.

Revision guidance for the Anthology Short Stories is presented in the same way as it is for the poems. Each story is looked at in turn through a series of questions (preceded again by a brief note on the author and a glossary where necessary). Final thoughts are followed by two examples of examination questions which require the story to be compared in some way to one of the others in the collection.

Following the detailed analysis of each story, Childs gives guidance on comparing short stories with regard to both content and style. Structuring a Prose Response on the following two pages shows how to 'Compare two stories where characters face difficult situations'. Taking Lessing's 'Flight' and Roberts' 'Your Shoes', Childs defines the four main points to consider and shows how to make a plan in table form giving notes on these four points.

Sample answers and commentaries give three responses to the question 'Doris Lessing uses pigeons to represent something else. Write about how she does this, and how the author of one other story in the Anthology uses the same technique.' One of the sample answers was awarded a Grade A, one a Grade C, and the third a Grade E. Each sample answer is followed by a commentary.

The Glossary on the final page gives definitions of terms such as alliteration, paradox, refrain and syntax.

This is probably the best book available to assist in studying and revising the AQA Anthology. Whilst it does not provide answers to the questions asked, the nature of these questions gives a clear idea of what needs to be considered for each poem or short story and assists in giving a sound understanding. Even an able pupil who understands a poem or story well, however, may not be confident in comparing it with another work in the Anthology, and Childs' book gives plenty of advice in this area. There is a bonus for those studying the poems of Cluster 1 for English, as well as those studying the poems of Heaney and Clarke for English Literature, as some of these are focused on when showing how to structure a response to the poems.

I have used this book on a one-to-one basis both when introducing a pupil to a poem or short story for the first time and for the purposes of revision. I have also lent it to one or two more able pupils who were aiming at a Grade A for English and English Literature, and they were able to gain a stronger insight into the Anthology by using this book on their own. I do think it would be difficult for a less able pupil to use the book without a tutor or parent guiding them, but for a parent who does wish to help, this is an ideal book. No-one is likely to be using every single sub-section of the book, but even so, if it results in achieving even one grade higher, £6.50 seems a small price to pay. I would definitely recommend this book as a study guide or a revision guide for the examinations in question.

Revise the English and English Literature Anthology for AQA A

by Tony Childs

Heinemann, 2002

Paperback, 252 pages

ISBN 0435102885

Price £6.25 (Amazon Marketplace from £2.25)

Sonnet - John Clare

John Clare's simply-titled 'Sonnet' of 1841 is a clear statement of his love of the English summer time. He begins with the phrase 'I love...', and this is repeated in the third line as well as the eleventh, with 'I like...' echoing in the ninth line.

Clare uses imagery to focus on the sights of nature that give him so much pleasure. In the first line, summer is personified as 'beaming forth'. In the second line he skilfully combines alliteration and metaphor in his description of 'white wool sack clouds': his comparison of clouds to wool is fitting in that it keeps the imagery within the domain of nature. Colours of flowers are emphasised in the fourth and fifth lines: 'Mare blobs stain with gold' and 'water lilies whiten'.

In line six, Clare turns to the sound of reeds that 'rustle like wind shook wood', again combining two figures of speech – this time simile and assonance. He expresses his love of watching the Moor Hen searching for her nest in the rushes as well as his admiration of the weeping willow beside the 'clear deep lake'. The long 'ee' sounds in the phrase 'clear deep' emphasis the peace and stillness of the water.

Clare watches flowers swaying and insects flying about in the hay grass in lines eleven and twelve. 'Swings', 'winds' and 'wings' within those two lines build up assonance and alliteration to create a pleasant atmosphere of gentle movement. The final two lines of the sonnet emphasise the fine summer weather and sunshine in the phrases 'bright day' and 'bright beetles'. The insects 'sport about the meadow', giving a feeling of play and enjoyment of the season and the sun. The sonnet ends with a return to the 'clear lake', echoing line ten and giving a sense of unity.

The sonnet is unusual in its lack of punctuation – there is not even a full stop at the end of the final line. The lack of commas or semi-colons allows one line to flow into the next and gives a sense of continuity. The rhyme scheme is, on the other hand, very straightforward and traditional, lending harmony to the sonnet. This is a poem to be appreciated for its simplicity, beautiful imagery and expression of love of nature.

I love to see the summer beaming forth

And white wool sack clouds sailing to the north

I love to see the wild flowers come again

And Mare blobs stain with gold the meadow drain

And water lilies whiten on the floods

Where reed clumps rustle like a wind shook wood

Where from her hiding place the Moor Hen pushes

And seeks her flag nest floating in bull rushes

I like the willow leaning half way o'er

The clear deep lake to stand upon its shore

I love the hay grass when the flower head swings

To summer winds and insects happy wings

That sport about the meadow the bright day

And see bright beetles in the clear lake play

John Clare

1841